Method for fabricating multi-resistive state memory devices

ABSTRACT

A treated conductive element is provided. A conductive element can be treated by depositing either a reactive metal or a very thin layer of material on the conductive element. The reactive metal (or very thin layer of material) would typically be sandwiched between the conductive element and an electrode. The structure additionally exhibits non-linear IV characteristics, which can be favorable in certain arrays.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates generally to computer memory, and more specifically to memory fabrication.

2. Description of the Related Art

Memory can either be classified as volatile or nonvolatile. Volatile memory is memory that loses its contents when the power is turned off. In contrast, non-volatile memory does not require a continuous power supply to retain information. Most non-volatile memories use solid-state memory devices as memory elements.

Certain conductive metal oxides (CMOs), for example, can be used as solid-state memory devices. The CMOs can retain a resistive state after being exposed to an electronic pulse, which can be delivered through two terminals. U.S. Pat. No. 6,204,139, issued Mar. 20, 2001 to Liu et al., incorporated herein by reference for all purposes, describes some perovskite materials that exhibit such characteristics. The perovskite materials are also described by the same researchers in “Electric-pulse-induced reversible resistance change effect in magnetoresistive films,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 76, No. 19, 8 May 2000, and “A New Concept for Non-Volatile Memory: The Electric-Pulse Induced Resistive Change Effect in Colossal Magnetoresistive Thin Films,” in materials for the 2001 Non-Volatile Memory Technology Symposium, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes. However, the materials described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,204,139 are not generally applicable to RAM memory because the resistance of the material, when scaled to small dimensions, is considered to be too large to make a memory with fast access times.

In U.S. Pat. No. 6,531,371 entitled “Electrically programmable resistance cross point memory” by Hsu et al, incorporated herein by reference for all purposes, resistive cross point memory devices are disclosed along with methods of manufacture and use. The memory device comprises an active layer of perovskite material interposed between upper electrodes and lower electrodes.

Similarly, the IBM Zurich Research Center has also published three technical papers that discuss the use of metal oxide material for memory applications: “Reproducible switching effect in thin oxide films for memory applications,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 77, No. 1, 3 Jul. 2000, “Current-driven insulator-conductor transition and nonvolatile memory in chromium-doped SrTiO₃ single crystals,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 78, No. 23, 4 Jun. 2001, and “Electric current distribution across a metal-insulator-metal structure during bistable switching,” Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 90, No. 6, Sep. 2001, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes.

The discovery of the resistance-changing property of certain CMOs, however, is relatively recent and has not yet been implemented in a commercial memory product. There are continuing efforts to bring a true non-volatile RAM (nvRAM) to market.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention generally provides a multi-resistive state element that is created by treating a conductive element. One embodiment is a memory array that includes a plurality of two-terminal memory plugs. Each two-terminal memory plug is operable to change from a high resistive state to a low resistive state upon application of a first write voltage and change from a low resistive state to a high resistive state upon application of a second write voltage. Furthermore, each two terminal memory plug includes a multi-resistive state element that has a conductive element and a reactive metal that reacts with the conductive element.

In yet another embodiment of the invention, the multi-resistive state element has a conductive element and a very thin layer of material that is less than 200 Angstroms thick deposited on the conductive element.

In some embodiments of the invention, the conductive element is a conductive metal oxide and either the reactive metal or the very thin layer of material is Al, Ti, Mg, W, Fe, Cr, Vn, Zn, Ta or Mo. In other embodiments of the invention, the memory plug includes a top electrode and a bottom electrode. In yet other embodiments of the invention, the top electrode is Pt.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention may best be understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1A depicts a perspective view of an exemplary cross point memory array employing a single layer of memory;

FIG. 1B depicts a perspective view of an exemplary stacked cross point memory array employing four layer of memory;

FIG. 2A depicts a plan view of selection of a memory cell in the cross point array depicted in FIG. 1A;

FIG. 2B depicts a perspective view of the boundaries of the selected memory cell depicted in FIG. 2A;

FIG. 3 depicts a generalized representation of a memory cell that can be used in a transistor memory array;

FIG. 4 depicts an exemplary flow chart of various processing steps that could be involved in fabrication of a memory;

FIG. 5A is a chart of measurements across a multi-resistive state memory element after a layer of reactive metal has been deposited;

FIG. 5B is a chart depicting the double ramp voltage pulse used to for the measurements of FIG. 5A;

FIG. 6A depicts a schematic diagram of x-direction driver sets; and

FIG. 6B depicts a schematic diagram of y-direction driver sets.

It is to be understood that, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate like structural elements. Also, it is understood that the depictions in the FIGS. are not necessarily to scale.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without some or all of these specific details. In other instances, well known process steps have not been described in detail in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the present invention.

The Memory Array

Conventional nonvolatile memory requires three terminal MOSFET-based devices. The layout of such devices is not ideal, usually requiring an area of at least 8f² for each memory cell, where f is the minimum feature size. However, not all memory elements require three terminals. If, for example, a memory element is capable of changing its electrical properties (e.g., resistivity) in response to a voltage pulse, only two terminals are required. With only two terminals, a cross point array layout that allows a single cell to be fabricated to a size of 4f² can be utilized. U.S. patent application, “Cross Point Memory Array Using Multiple Thin Films,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/330,512, filed Dec. 26, 2002, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 6,753,561, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety and for all purposes, describes such a device.

FIG. 1A depicts a perspective view of an exemplary cross point memory array 100 employing a single layer of memory. A bottom layer of x-direction conductive array lines 105 is orthogonal to a top layer of y-direction conductive array lines 110. The x-direction conductive array lines 105 act as a first terminal and the y-direction conductive array lines 110 act as a second terminal to a plurality of memory plugs 115, which are located at the intersections of the conductive array lines 105 and 110. The conductive array lines 105 and 110 are used to both deliver a voltage pulse to the memory plugs 115 and carry current through the memory plugs 115 in order to determine their resistive states.

Conductive array line layers 105 and 110 can generally be constructed of any conductive material, such as aluminum, copper, tungsten or certain ceramics. Depending upon the material, a conductive array line would typically cross between 64 and 8192 perpendicular conductive array lines. Fabrication techniques, feature size and resistivity of material may allow for shorter or longer lines. Although the x-direction and y-direction conductive array lines can be of equal lengths (forming a square cross point array) they can also be of unequal lengths (forming a rectangular cross point array).

FIG. 2A illustrates selection of a memory cell 205 in the cross point array 100. The point of intersection between a single x-direction conductive array line 210 and a single y-direction conductive array line 215 uniquely identifies the single memory cell 205. FIG. 2B illustrates the boundaries of the selected memory cell 205. The memory cell is a repeatable unit that can be theoretically extended in one, two or even three dimensions. One method of repeating the memory cells in the z-direction (orthogonal to the x-y plane) is to use both the bottom and top surfaces of conductive array lines 105 and 110.

FIG. 1B depicts an exemplary stacked cross point array 150 employing four memory layers 155, 160, 165, and 170. The memory layers are sandwiched between alternating layers of x-direction conductive array lines 175, 180 and 185 and y-direction conductive array lines 190 and 195 such that each memory layer 155, 160, 165, and 170 is associated with only one x-direction conductive array line layer and one y-direction conductive array line layer. Although the top conductive array line layer 185 and bottom conductive array line layer 175 are only used to supply voltage to a single memory layer 155 and 170, the other conductive array line layers 180, 190, and 195 can be used to supply voltage to both a top and a bottom memory layer 155, 160, 165, or 170. U.S. patent application, “Re-Writable Memory With Multiple Memory Layers,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/612,191, filed Jul. 1, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 6,906,939, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, describes stacked cross point arrays.

Referring back to FIG. 2B, the repeatable cell that makes up the cross point array 100 can be considered to be a memory plug 255, plus ½ of the space around the memory plug, plus ½ of an x-direction conductive array line 210 and ½ of a y-direction conductive array line 215. Of course, ½ of a conductive array line is merely a theoretical construct, since a conductive array line would generally be fabricated to the same width, regardless of whether one or both surfaces of the conductive array line was used. Accordingly, the very top and very bottom layers of conductive array lines (which use only one surface) would typically be fabricated to the same size as all other layers of conductive array lines.

One benefit of the cross point array is that the active circuitry that drives the cross point array 100 or 150 can be placed beneath the cross point array, therefore reducing the footprint required on a semiconductor substrate. U.S. patent application, “Layout Of Driver Sets In A Cross Point Memory Array,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/612,733, filed Jul. 1, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 7,079,442, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, describes various circuitry that can achieve a small footprint underneath both a single layer cross point array 100 and a stacked cross point array 150. Further details of the peripheral circuitry are described in U.S. patent application, “An Adaptive Programming Technique for a Re-Writeable Conductive Memory Device,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/680,508, filed Oct. 6, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 6,940,744, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. FIG. 6A depicts x-direction driver sets 605, 610, and 615 that are used to select specific x-direction conductive array lines in a X₀ layer 175, X₁ layer 180, and X₂ layer 185. Although the X₀ driver 605 and the X₂ driver 615 can use identical logic, separate drivers are shown because of the difficulty in routing the single X₀ driver 605 around a thru 650 that connects the X₁ layer 180 to the X₁ driver 610. FIG. 6B depicts y-direction driver sets 620 and 625 that are used to select specific y-direction conductive array lines in the y-direction conductive array line layers 190 and 195. The Y₀ driver set 620 uses a thru 630 that goes through one ILD layer in order to connect with the Y₀ layer 190. The Y₁ driver set 625 uses a thru 635 that goes through three ILD layers in order to connect with the Y₁ layer 195.

The cross point array is not the only type of memory array that can be used with a two-terminal memory element. For example, a two-dimensional transistor memory array can incorporate a two-terminal memory element. While the memory element in such an array would be a two-terminal device, the entire memory cell would be a three-terminal device.

FIG. 3 is a generalized diagrammatic representation of a memory cell 300 that can be used in a transistor memory array. Each memory cell 300 includes a transistor 305 and a memory plug 310. The transistor 305 is used to permit current from the data line 315 to access the memory plug 310 when an appropriate voltage is applied to the select line 320, which is also the transistor's gate. The reference line 325 might span two cells if the adjacent cells are laid out as the mirror images of each other. U.S. patent application, “Non-Volatile Memory with a Single Transistor and Resistive Memory Element,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/249,848, filed May 12, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 6,856,536, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, describes the specific details of designing and fabricating a transistor memory array.

The Memory Plug

Each memory plug 255 or 310 contains a multi-resistive state element (described later) along with any other materials that may be desirable for fabrication or functionality. For example, the additional materials might include a non-ohmic device, as is described in application “High Density NVRAM,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/360,005, filed Feb. 7, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 6,917,539, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. The non-ohmic device exhibits a very high resistance regime for a certain range of voltages (V_(NO−) to V_(NO+)) and a very low resistance regime for voltages above and below that range. The non-ohmic device, either alone or in combination with other elements, may cause the memory plug 255 or 310 to exhibit a non-linear resistive characteristic. Exemplary non-ohmic devices include three-film metal-insulator-metal (MIM) structures and back-to-back diodes in series.

Furthermore, as described in “Rewriteable Memory With Non-Linear Memory Element,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,556, filed Jul. 30, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 6,870,755, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, it may also be possible for the memory cell exhibit non-linear characteristics without a separate non-ohmic device. It should be noted that since it is possible for a memory cell to exhibit non-linear characteristics the terms “resistive memory” and “resistive device” also apply to memories and devices showing non-linear characteristics, and can also be referred to as “conductive memory” and “conductive device.” While a non-ohmic device might be desirable in certain arrays, it may not be helpful in other arrays. Regardless, if certain treatments are used to improve the switching characteristics of the memory plug the treatments may also create an integrated non-ohmic device. Such a non-ohmic device may, therefore, be used even if it is not necessary in that type of array.

Electrodes will typically be desirable components of the memory plugs 255 or 310, a pair of electrodes sandwiching the multi-resistive state element. If the only purpose of the electrodes is as a barrier to prevent metal inter-diffusion, then a thin layer of metal, e.g. TiN, Pt, Au, Ag and Al. could be used. However, conductive oxide electrodes may provide advantages beyond simply acting as a metal inter-diffusion barrier. U.S. patent application, “Conductive Memory Device With Barrier Electrodes,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/682,277, filed Oct. 8, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 7,067,862, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, describes electrodes (formed either with a single layer or multiple layers) that prevent the diffusion of metals, oxygen, hydrogen and water, act as a seed layer in order to form a good lattice match with the conductive memory element, include adhesion layers, and reduce stress caused by uneven coefficients of thermal expansion, and provide other benefits. Additionally, the choice of electrode layers in combination with the multi-resistive state element layer may affect the properties of the memory plug 255 or 310, as is described in U.S. patent application, “Resistive Memory Device With A Treated Interface,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/665,882, filed Sep. 19, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 7,326,979, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

The multi-resistive state element will generally (but not necessarily) be crystalline—either as a single crystalline structure or a polycrystalline structure. One class of multi-resistive state element are perovskites that include two or more metals, the metals being selected from the group consisting of transition metals, alkaline earth metals and rare earth metals. The perovskites can be any number of compositions, including manganites (e.g., Pr_(0.7)Ca_(0.3)MnO₃, Pr_(0.5)Ca_(0.5)MnO₃ and other PCMOs, LCMOs, etc.), titanates (e.g., STO:Cr), zirconates (e.g., SZO:Cr), other materials such as Ca₂Nb₂O₇:Cr, and Ta₂O₅:Cr, and high Tc superconductors (e.g., YBCO). Specifically, MnO₃, when combined with the rare earth metals La, Pr or some combination thereof and the alkaline earth metals Ca, Sr or some combination thereof have been found to produce a particularly effective multi-resistive state element for use in the memory plug 255 or 310. The compounds that make up the perovskite class of multi-resistive state elements include both simple conductive metal oxides and complex conductive metal oxides. Further, some oxides that may not be conductive in their pure form may be used as they become conductive through the addition of dopants, or if they are used as a very thin layer (e.g., in the order of tens of Angstroms) in which case tunneling conduction can be achieved. Therefore, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the terms “conductive memory,” “conductive element,” and “conductive device” can include devices that are fabricated with materials that are classified as insulators, but are thin enough to allow tunneling conduction.

Multi-resistive state elements, however, are not limited to perovskites. Specifically, any conductive element (composed of either a single material or a combination of materials) that has a hysteresis that exhibits a resistive state change upon application of a voltage while allowing non-destructive reads is a good candidate for a multi-resistive state element. A non-destructive read means that the read operation has no effect on the resistive state of the memory element. Measuring the resistance of a memory cell is accomplished by detecting either current after the memory cell is held to a known voltage, or voltage after a known current flows through the memory cell. Therefore, a multi-resistive state element that is placed in a high resistive state R₀ upon application of −V_(W) and a low resistive state R₁ upon application of +V_(W) should be unaffected by a read operation performed at −V_(R) or +V_(R). In such materials a write operation is not necessary after a read operation. The same principle applies if more that one resistive state is used to store information (e.g., the multi-resistive state element has a high resistive state of R₀₀, a medium-high resistive state of R₀₁, a medium-low resistive state of R₁₀ and a low resistive state of R₁₁).

As described in U.S. patent application, “A 2-Terminal Trapped Charge Memory device with Voltage Switchable Multi-Level Resistance,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/634,636, filed Aug. 4, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 7,038,935, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, trapped charges are one mechanism by which the hysteresis effect is created. Trapped charges can be encouraged with dopants, as described in U.S. patent application, “Multi-Resistive State Material that Uses Dopants,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,606, filed Aug. 4, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 7,071,008, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

Treating the Conductive Element

Properties of the multi-resistive state elements can be further enhanced, or even created, with certain treatments. For example, a reactive metal, such as Al, Ti, Mg, W, Fe, Cr, Vn, Zn, Ta or Mo can create a differential between the high resistive state and the low resistive state in a conductive metal oxide that does not exhibit switching properties in an untreated condition. Similarly, a reactive metal can enhance the switching properties of a conductive element that already exhibits switching properties. The reactive metal reacts with the conductive element and forms a layer of reacted metal, therefore creating a multi-resistive state element with enhanced properties. Furthermore, following the deposition of the reactive metal with an anneal (e.g., 400° C. in an Argon or similarly non-reactive environment) can give the memory plug a more stable structure.

The reactive metal can additionally create a non-ohmic device within the multi-resistive state element. Typically, the thicker the layer of reacted metal is, the greater the range of voltages V_(NO−) to V_(NO+). However, there is a limit to how much reactive metal can diffuse and react with the conductive element.

For example, if 500 Angstroms of Al were used on a PCMO perovskite, only the first 100 Angstroms may fully react with the underlying conductive element. The unreacted portion of the reactive metal might then cause the memory plug to have degraded properties. Furthermore, the best switching properties may not coincide with the largest range of voltages V_(NO−) to V_(NO+). Although most applications would use between 10 and 100 Angstroms of reactive metal, between 25 and 50 Angstroms would typically be preferred in most conditions. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that such reactive metal layers would be considered “very thin” layers. Very thin layers typically describe any layer that is less than 200 Angstroms.

By monitoring current through a resistance set in series with the multi-resistive state element, and graphing this current versus an applied pulse shaped as a double ramp, an I-V curve can be obtained which shows the switching of the memory element in real time. This contrasts with standard IV curves, which are taken with a very slow ramp, in the order of tens of millisecond, and only represent the DC functionality of the memory element. FIG. 5A is a chart of measurements across a multi-resistive state memory element after a layer of reactive metal has been deposited, using a pulse with a 10 μs positive ramp, 5 μs high or low level at +3.5 and −4V, and a 10 μs negative ramp, as shown in FIG. 5B.

Fabrication

FIG. 4 is an exemplary flow chart of various processing steps that could be involved in fabrication of a memory. At 405, standard front end of line (FEOL) processes can be used to form the active circuitry that drives the cross point memory array. FEOL processes are generally defined as operations performed on a semiconductor wafer in the course of device manufacturing up to first metallization, and might end with chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) of an inter-layer dielectric (ILD). Certain cross point arrays, especially those with active circuitry underneath the memory array, might also include various metallization layers in step 405. The metallization layers are used to electrically connect the active circuitry to the conductive array lines of the cross point array 100 or 150.

The next processing step at 410 is formation of contact holes through the ILD to appropriate positions in the active circuitry (or metallization layers in the case of some cross point arrays) followed by plug formation at 415. Certain transistor memory arrays may require these steps if, for example, the memory plug 310 were so wide that it would overlap the transistor's gate 320. Otherwise, the memory plug 310 could be formed directly on top of the semiconductor substrate 305.

Once the plugs are formed, a cross point array 100 or 150 would require that the conductive array lines be patterned on the wafer at 420. If refractory metals with relatively high resistivities are used for the conductive array lines, the maximum length and minimum cross-sectional area may be limited in comparison to aluminum or copper.

Another ILD layer could be deposited over the first layer of conductive array lines at 425. The dielectric layer can be deposited over the conductive array lines by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) and then planarized by CMP to expose the top surfaces of the conductive array lines.

At 430 the memory plug formation begins. In the case of transistor memory array, the memory plug can be formed directly on the contact hole plugs. In the case of a cross point array, the memory plugs are formed on the bottom conductive array lines.

Regardless of the memory array, a memory plug generally begins with the deposition of the bottom electrodes at 430. At 435 the multi-resistive state elements are deposited, typically using high temperature processing (e.g., solution based spin on followed by high temperature anneal, pulsed laser deposition, sputtering, and metal-organic chemical vapor deposition). However, U.S. patent applications, “Laser Annealing of Complex Metal Oxides (CMO) Memory Materials for Non-Volatile Memory Integrated Circuits,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/387,799, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 7,309,616, and “Low Temperature Deposition of Complex Metal Oxides (CMO) Memory Materials for Non-Volatile Memory Integrated Circuits,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/387,773, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 7,063,984, both filed Mar. 13, 2003, and both incorporated herein by reference in their entireties for all purposes, describe fabrication techniques that may be able to be used in lieu of high temperature fabrication processes. If high temperature fabrication were used, then all the circuitry elements that were deposited before the multi-resistive state element would need to withstand those high temperatures. Using refractory metals are one technique that can be used to create elements that can endure high temperatures.

It should also be appreciated that fabrication of the multi-resistive state element might include additional techniques in order to ensure an effective memory device. For example, biasing the multi-resistive state element might be beneficial in order to ensure the hysteresis is presented in a certain direction. U.S. patent application, “Multi-Layer Conductive Memory Device,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/605,757, filed Oct. 23, 2003, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 6,965,137, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes describes using a multi-layered multi-resistive state element in order to encourage a hysteresis in a certain direction. As previously discussed, a reactive metal can also be a desirable addition to the multi-resistive state element.

At 440 another electrode is deposited on top of the multi-resistive state element. At 450 the optional non-ohmic device is formed. If the non-ohmic device is a MIM structure, a top electrode layer may or may not be necessary at 455. In addition, this top electrode layer could include a barrier layer to prevent metal inter-diffusion.

At 460 standard photolithography and appropriate multi-step etch processes could be used to pattern the memory/non-ohmic film stack into memory cell plugs. U.S. patent application, “Conductive Memory Stack With Non-Uniform Width,” U.S. application Ser. No. 10/605,963, now issued U.S. Pat. No. 7,009,235, filed Nov. 10, 2003, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes describes an improved fabrication technique that includes etching a memory plug with a non-uniform width and using a sidewall layer around the memory plug.

At 465 depositing another ILD, which can then be planarized by CMP, fills in the spaces between the plugs. At 470 via holes are formed in the ILD. Via holes could be formed to connect the tops of the memory cell islands and are one mechanism that can be used to provide connections between metal interconnect layers. The via holes are then filled at 475.

The top layer(s) of conductive array lines could then be formed at 480. If there are no more memory elements to form at high temperature, the final layer(s) of conductive array lines may comprise aluminum, copper or other high conductivity metal.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Although the invention has been described in its presently contemplated best mode, it is clear that it is susceptible to numerous modifications, modes of operation and embodiments, all within the ability and skill of those familiar with the art and without exercise of further inventive activity. For example, instead of limiting how much reactive metal is deposited on top of the multi-resistive state element, any excess unreacted material can simply be polished off with CMP. Accordingly, that which is intended to be protected by Letters Patent is set forth in the claims and includes all variations and modifications that fall within the spirit and scope of the claim. 

1. A method for fabricating non-volatile two-terminal memory devices, comprising: depositing a bottom electrode; depositing a conductive metal oxide (CMO), the CMO in contact with the bottom electrode; depositing a reactive metal, the reactive metal is in contact with the CMO and the reactive metal reacts with the CMO; and depositing a top electrode, the top electrode in contact with the reactive metal, and the depositing of the CMO and the reactive metal forming a two-terminal memory element that is reversibly programmable to different resistive states and the resistive states are retained in the absence of electrical power, the memory element including a first non-linear I-V characteristic for all values of the resistive states, and the memory element is electrically in series with its respective top and bottom electrodes.
 2. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the reactive metal is Al, Ti, Mg, W, Fe, Cr, Vn, Zn, Ta, or Mo.
 3. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein at least one of the electrodes is Pt.
 4. The method as set forth in claim 1 and further comprising: annealing the reactive metal.
 5. The method as set forth in claim 4, wherein the annealing of the reactive metal occurs in a non-reactive ambient.
 6. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the depositing of the reactive metal results in a very thin layer of material that is less than 200 Angstroms thick.
 7. The method as set forth in claim 6, wherein the very thin layer of material is less than 100 Angstroms thick.
 8. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the depositing of the reactive metal occurs prior to the depositing of the CMO.
 9. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the depositing of the reactive metal occurs after the depositing of the CMO.
 10. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the CMO comprises a perovskite.
 11. The method as set forth in claim 1 and further comprising: removing an unreacted portion of the reactive metal.
 12. The method as set forth in claim 1 and further comprising: providing a semiconductor substrate including active circuitry fabricated front-end-of-the line (FEOL) on the semiconductor substrate, and wherein the depositing occurs after the providing so that the memory elements are fabricated directly above the active circuitry after completion of the FEOL fabrication.
 13. The method as set forth in claim 1 and further comprising: forming a non-ohmic device that is electrically in series with the CMO and the reactive metal, the non-ohmic device including a second non-linear I-V characteristic that is different than the first non-linear I-V characteristic.
 14. The method as set forth in claim 13, wherein the forming includes depositing at least one layer of an insulating material and depositing at least one layer of a conductive material such that the non-ohmic device comprises a metal-insulator-metal structure.
 15. The method as set forth in claim 1 and further comprising: improving a switching characteristic of the memory element by treating at least one layer of material after the at least one layer of material has been deposited, the treating is operative to form an integrated non-ohmic device that is electrically in series with the CMO and the reactive metal, and the integrated non-ohmic device including a second non-linear I-V characteristic that is different than the first non-linear I-V characteristic.
 16. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the first electrode comprises multiple layers of electrically conductive thin-film materials.
 17. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein at least one of the multiple layers of electrically conductive thin-film materials comprises a conductive oxide.
 18. The method as set forth in claim 1, wherein the second electrode comprises multiple layers of electrically conductive thin-film materials.
 19. The method as set forth in claim 18, wherein at least one of the multiple layers of electrically conductive thin-film materials comprises a conductive oxide. 